Here's a model for how adults learn from self-paced,
technology-based corporate training.
Did you ever wonder how adults learn from self-paced,
technology-based corporate training? What do these learners do to
make the content personally meaningful? How do they learn to apply
it on the job? What features of a self-paced, technology-based
course do they find particularly valuable? Should instructional
designers assist or prohibit learners from changing or customizing
the course? Here's a model, as well as information and examples, to
answer these questions and more importantly, discuss the
implications for designing and developing effective self-paced,
technology-based corporate training.
The model is based on a research study I conducted with employees
from several large international corporations. Each study
participant selected a different career-relevant, self-paced,
technology-based course offered by his or her corporation.
Self-Paced, Technology-Based Instruction vs.
E-Learning
Before describing the model of how adults learn from self-paced,
technology-based instruction, I want to compare e-learning with
self-paced, technology-based instruction. In July 2003, the
Learning Circuits article by Jennifer Hoffman outlined five factors
that create success for e-learners. One success factor is the skill
of the online instructor and another is collaborative interaction.
In other words, effective e-learning includes a skilled instructor
and some type of organized group activities, such as student
projects and participation in discussion forums.
On the other hand, self-paced, technology-based instruction doesn't
include an online instructor or organized group work. E-learning
courses are more group-paced than self-paced. Accordingly, the
design of e-learning courses is different than the design of
self-paced, technology-based courses.
However, both types of instruction occur within the context of a
corporation, and because that context has a significant impact on
learners, it's important to understand that context. For example,
adult learners take self-paced, technology-based corporate training
in the context of their employment, and they usually engage in
conversations about the course with colleagues and managers. These
discussions may be peer-to-peer or learner-to-mentor and are
similar in their focus and goals to threaded discussions in an
e-learning course.
Additionally, most corporate employees only take self-paced,
technology-based training when they need new information or skills
to successfully complete a recently assigned task or project. Thus,
employees typically apply their new skills within a few hours or
days of taking the training. This just-in-time context creates an
authentic learning environment where the learner's work group often
provides collaborative interaction.
The Model
Figure 1 is a model, based on the research described above, that
shows the process adult learners follow when taking self-paced,
technology-based corporate training. The model indicates that
learning begins with and is sustained by self-assessment and
self-correction (metacognition). Learners repeatedly assess their
understanding using both internal self-assessments and any
self-check questions, simulations, or practice exercises included
in the course.
The "I understand" decision. When a learner's
self-assessment is positive (meaning: "I understand"), they
continue to read and reflect on the usefulness, relevancy, and big
picture of the course content (see the box to the right of the
Metacognition diamond in the model). They also reflect on the
degree to which the course content applies to their current and
future responsibilities, and they often visualize how they can
apply their new knowledge to solve a problem or improve their
efficiency.
The "I'm confused" decision. When a learner's
self-assessment is negative (meaning: "I'm confused"), they use
three different strategies to resolve their confusion (see large
diamond in the middle of the model). First, and most important,
adult learners look for similarities and differences between the
content and their prior experiences. The differences they identify
are typically past problems with terminology or misconceptions of
how something worked. The problem is resolved when information in
the course clarifies the definition of a term or acronym or
resolves a misconception.
A second strategy adult learners use when they're confused about
course content is to reflect on the degree to which the confusing
information could meet their current needs if they understood it.
In determining the relevancy of specific content, adult learners
often look for the big picture. If the course doesn't contain an
advance organizer, which ideally helps learners understand the big
picture in terms of describing the relationship between the main
points in the ensuing instruction, linking the content to
learners, prior experiences, and providing an example of how
learners, can apply the content, adult learners typically spend
time trying to create their own advance organizer. They often use
section headings and tables of contents to help them understand the
big picture. They also reflect on their prior experiences to
visualize how the new content solves a problem, answers a question,
or at least relates to an experience they had in the past.
The third strategy adult learners use when their self-assessment is
negative is to focus on terminology. Terminology is an important
aspect of both metacognition and linking new information to prior
experiences. That is, part of our metacognition is assessing our
understanding of terms and acronyms. Part of linking our prior
experiences to the course content is learning the definition of a
term we heard in the past but had not completely understood.
In other words, adult learners try to resolve their confusion by
linking the course content to their prior experiences, reflecting
on the usefulness of the course content, and looking for
terminology in the course which they encountered in the past.
The "work on it some more" decision. If one or a
combination of these three strategies resolve the learner's
confusion, they continue reading and reflecting on the course
content (see the box to the right of the Metacognition diamond in
the model). Conversely, if learners remain confused, they will make
a decision about how important it is to continue to struggle (see
diamond labeled Work on it some more? on the left side of the
model). Sometimes, adult learners decide to skim over a confusing
section because they see no practical application of the confusing
information.
Other times, adult learners decide the information is important and
they continue to try to resolve their confusion. As the box in the
lower left corner of the model indicates, adult learners use one or
more of four different strategies to try again to resolve their
confusion:
- re-read the confusing passages or sections
- initiate a conversation with an expert or try to practice using
the confusing information using hands-on exercises or simulations
in the course
- question the relevancy of the confusing information
- engage in more self-assessment (metacognition) to determine
whether they should keep reading or try again to resolve their
confusion.
The "need a job aid" decision. Typically, adult
learners are concerned about their ability to remember new
information in a self-paced, technology-based course. They're
concerned not only about their memory skills, but also about the
future availability of the course. Learners deal with this
insecurity by creating a job aid (see diamond near the middle of
the model labeled). A job aid may be a hard copy of the course or
it may be the learner's hand-written notes. Either way, the job aid
is typically a paper-based document learners intend to use to help
them remember the new information.
The "finished with course" decision. Once adult
learners complete their self-paced, technology-based course (see
diamond on the right side of the model), the course becomes another
prior experience. On the job they may think about, talk about,
and/or apply their new skills. They also continue to self-assess
and self-correct based on authentic experiences, reflections, and
conversations, (see the five boxes in the lower right corner of the
model). Sometimes, something in the learners environment triggers a
flashback and they will recall how a section of the course relates
to their current experience. Sometimes, learners ask or answer a
question about the course content. Sometimes they discuss problems
with colleagues that can be solved using specific concepts or
procedures described in the course. And sometimes learners teach
colleagues something they learned in the course.
It's important to note that this model doesn't assume that learning
ends when learners complete a course. Likewise, it doesn't assume
that learners read all sections of a course. The "finished with
course?" decision diamond reflects the learners' decision that
they're done with the course. Perhaps this is because learners
mastered what they needed to know and they aren't interested in the
other sections of the course. Perhaps the learners are frustrated
with the course and don't want to work on it any more. Perhaps the
learners have, in fact, completed all sections of the course. For
whatever reason, when adult learners decide they're finished with
the course, they continue to reflect on what they learned, discuss
the course content with colleagues, and apply whatever content was
relevant to their employment responsibilities. This means that the
learning process begins when adult learners engage in metacognition
at the beginning of a course and it continues after they finish the
course.
Instructional design implications
What are the implications of this model? What does the model
suggest in terms of effective instructional design of self-paced,
technology-based corporate training?
Instructional design implications for metacognition
activities. Given the importance of self-assessment and
self-correction to adult learners using self-paced,
technology-based training, a design recommendation is to provide
frequent opportunities for learners to self-assess and
self-correct. This includes frequent embedded questions or
self-checks, practice exercises, or hands-on simulations. To enable
learners to self-correct, it's important to include evaluative
feedback, as well as the correct answer. You can either provide the
correct answer or a link back to the section in the content where
the learner can find the correct answer. You also can allow
learners more than one attempt on self-assessment exercises. If
they answer the exercise incorrectly, provide additional
instruction, in the form of a hint that refers to content the
learner has just read or to prior experiences of the learner,
perhaps, and ask them to try again to answer the question.
Typically, self-paced, technology-based corporate training doesn't
include as many opportunities for self-assessment and
self-correction as learners would like. Perhaps that is because
writing challenging and appropriate questions, practice exercises,
and hands-on simulations, including feedback, is difficult, time
consuming, and expensive.
Instructional design implications for content
review. Closely related to self-assessment and
self-correction, is the process of reviewing or re-reading
instructional content. Adult learners frequently review
instructional content as part of their metacognition while taking a
self-paced, technology-based course. Additionally, adult learners
often return to a course they've completed to refresh their
memories or answer a question that arises as part of their work.
The implication is that designers of self-paced, technology-based
corporate training should assume that courses need to function not
only as training but also as post-instructional memory aids or
electronic performance support systems (EPSS).
To make reviewing easy and efficient, self-paced, technology-based
corporate training should be easy to navigate. It should include a
table of contents, a searchable index, and a site or content map.
It also should offer section summaries and headings, a glossary,
and a search capability. A simple navigation schema, which enables
learners to go to any section or sub-section, is another essential
feature to enable easy reviewing.
Another aspect of designing for easy review is to include a print
feature that allows learners to make hard copies of individual
sections, visuals, or the entire course. A print feature allows
learners to create a job aid, which they can use to review the
course content.
Instructional design implications for examples.
While self-assessment and correction are the most important
learning strategies for adult learners, examples are valuable
tools. One reason examples are so vital is because adult learners
use examples as part of their self-assessment and to check their
understanding. They compare the examples in the course with prior
experiences, looking for similarities and differences. They also
use examples to assess the relevancy of the content. Designers of
self-paced, technology-based corporate training should develop
examples and analogies that help learners link their prior
experiences to the course content or help them visualize how they
can use the course content in the future. I will describe how best
to design and use examples in the upcoming articles, but for now
consider that in addition to the examples included in the
instruction, adult learners typically create their own examples,
based on their prior experiences.
Instructional design implications for relevancy.
In addition to examples, designers can use reflection questions
throughout a self-paced, technology-based course to help adult
learners understand the relevancy of the content and its connection
to their organizational responsibilities. For example, at the
beginning of a course or section of a course, a designer might ask,
"Did you ever wonder," and then complete the sentence with the goal
or objective of the course or section. That technique was used at
the beginning of this article. What were you thinking after you
read each of those questions in the first paragraph?
In addition, designers can start a course or section with an
example or case history, followed by a statement that asks learners
to think about that example throughout the subsequent instruction.
Similarly, at the end of a course, designers can ask such
reflection questions as, "Which of the concepts or procedures in
this course can you use in the next few days? Which concept or
procedure will improve your efficiency in the next week?" While
skeptics might argue that learners won't stop to answer reflection
questions or follow the suggestions provided, my research suggests
that they do. In some cases, learners will employ this technique
even when they're not asked to do so.
Instructional design implications for terminology.
Terminology is an important component of self-paced,
technology-based corporate training. As part of self-assessment and
self correction process, adult learners compare definitions in the
course with either their own definitions of the same or similar
terms and their prior experiences with those terms. Terminology is
often the focus of conversations learners have with colleagues and
mentors. Defining acronyms and technical terminology is a common
design practice. In self-paced, technology-based training,
designers can easily provide roll-over definitions or links to a
glossary each time they use an acronym. Given the importance of
job-aids and learners insecurity about their knowledge and the
availability of the instruction in the future, it's important to
allow learners to print a paper copy of the glossary.
Instructional design implications for "the big
picture." Adult learners want two different types of big
picture information. First, adult learners want to know the big
picture within the content. This type of big picture information is
an integral part of an advance organizer, but many self-paced,
technology-based courses don't contain advance organizers. An
effective advance organizer helps learners understand the big
picture by describing the relationship between all the main points
in the ensuing instruction, helping learners link the content to
their prior experiences, and having learners visualize how they can
apply the content in the future. All self-paced, technology-based
training should include an advance organizer at the beginning of
the course and at the beginning of each major section of the
course. This reinforces the big picture. It also works as a zoom
lens where learners see the big picture, then the details, then the
big picture again. For learners who chose to jump around in a
course, they may see the details, then the big picture, then the
details again.
The second type of big picture information adult learners revolves
around the structure or design of the course. For example, a
specific self-paced, technology-based course is divided into four
sections. The first section is a brief history of the content. The
second section provides examples of how the content is used. The
third section provides a description of the procedure learners are
trying to master. The final section is a simulation learners use to
practice the procedure.
At the beginning of the course, the designer describes the four
sections in terms of their goal and role in the instruction. Some
learners may decide to start with the examples or the simulation,
some learners may start with the description of the procedure, and
some learners may start with the history section and then jump to
the examples. Adult learners typically know what they need to learn
and sometimes want to jump around rather than accessing the
information linearly. Consider that learning is a process of
personalizing the content so self-paced, technology-based corporate
training should allow learners to pick and choose, move around, and
customize it to meet their needs. Indeed, I suspect that some of
you didn't read this article from top to bottom but jumped around
to find information you could use or that you found particularly
interesting. Good decision.
Bottom Line
This model of how adults learn from self-paced, technology-based
corporate training implies that designers should always include the
following:
- frequent opportunities for learners to self-assess and
self-correct
- table of contents, searchable index, site or content map,
section summaries, headings, search capabilities, and a glossary so
learners can use the course both as a training intervention and as
a job aid, reference, or EPSS
- print features for learners to make paper copies of some or all
of the course
- numerous and relevant examples, most adult learners say, "the
more, the better"
- reflection questions to help learners create personal relevancy
- definitions for all acronyms and technical terminology
- an advance organizer that addresses both the big picture of the
content and the structure of the course.